Related glossaries include Biomolecules, Proteins,,  Sequences, DNA & beyond

carbohydrate binding proteins: Protein categories
carbohydrate chips: Microarrays & protein chips categories

carbohydrate function: Carbohydrates have several functions in cells. They are an excellent source of energy for the many different activities going on in our cells. Some carbohydrates may have a structural function. For example, the material that makes plants stand tall and gives wood its tough properties is a polymer form of glucose known as cellulose. Other types of sugar polymers make up the stored forms of energy known as starch and glycogen. ... Carbohydrates are essential for cells to communicate with each other. They also help cells adhere to each other and the material surrounding the cells in the body. The ability of the body to defend itself against invading microbes and the removal of foreign material from the body (such as the capture of dust and pollen by the mucus in our nose and throat) is also dependent on the properties of carbohydrates.  CancerQuest, Emory Winship Cancer Center, Carbohydrate Function 2010 http://www.cancerquest.org/carbohydrate-function 

carbohydrate sequence: The sequence of carbohydrates within POLYSACCHARIDES, GLYCOPROTEINS, and GLYCOLIPIDS. MeSH, 1980

carbohydrate structure: Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polysaccharide 

carbohydrates:   The largest class of organic compounds, including starches, glycogens, cellulose, gums, and simple sugars. Carbohydrates are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a ratio of Cn(H₂O)n. [MeSH] 

It has been estimated that about 0.5-1.0% of the translated mammalian genome participates in oligosaccharide production and function (Varki and Marth 1995). The magnitude of this genomic commitment to glycoconjugate biosynthesis is similar to that of protein phosphorylation, and may have as broad an impact on metazoan biology as the latter. In eukaryotes, protein and lipid glycosylation changes are observed during development, differentiation and importantly, numerous disease states. These differences are even being used as specific markers for diseases. Infectious diseases, and immune response are deeply imbued and dependent on carbohydrate residues. [Center for Structural Biology, Univ. of New Hampshire, US, Oct. 2000] http://glycome.unh.edu/  Related terms: glycobiology, oligosaccharide, polysaccharides, saccharides, saccharomics

complex carbohydrates: Carbohydrates made of two or more sugars.  Related terms: oligosaccharides, polysaccharides
Ricki Lewis, "Unraveling complex carbohydrates" Scientist 14 (6): 16, Mar. 20, 2000  http://www.the-scientist.com/yr2000/mar/research_000320.html

Consortium for Functional Glycomics:  A large research initiative funded by NIGMS to understand the role of carbohydrate- -protein interactions at the cell surface in cell-cell communication. http://web.mit.edu/glycomics/consortium/ 

functional glycomics:   The Consortium for Functional Glycomics (CFG) is a large research initiative funded by NIGMS to define the paradigms by which protein-carbohydrate interactions mediate cell communication. http://www.functionalglycomics.org/static/consortium/consortium.shtml   Google = about 297 Oct. 18, 2002

glycans: See polysaccharides
glyco array: Microarrays categories

glycobioinformatics:  The biological functions of carbohydrates are still not completely understood. However, it is clear that glycans are fundamental to many biological processes including fertilization, immune defense, viral replications, parasitic infection, cell growth, cell-cell adhesion and inflammation. Glycosylation is one of the most abundant forms of covalent protein and lipid modification. Inspection of protein databases suggest that as many as 70% of proteins have potential N-glycosylation sites. Glycoproteins and glycolipids are major components of the outer surface of mammalian cells. They represent key structures for the interaction of cells with toxins, viruses, bacteria, antibodies and micro-organisms. The spatial structure of glycans provide the driving force for many intermolecular interactions and thus predetermine their function. Their flexibility and dynamics frequently play a key role in biological activity and must be taken into account. Call for papers Expanding proteomics into glycobiology, Pacific Symposium on Biocomputing, Jan 2002, Hawaii http://psb.stanford.edu/psb02/cfp-glycobio.html  Google = about 19 Oct. 18, 2002; about 17 May 5, 2005

glycobiology: The objectives of the Society for Glycobiology shall be to promote knowledge, encourage research, and to stimulate personal communications, in an inter- disciplinary sense, using as a common meeting ground an interest in the complex carbohydrates of glycoproteins, glycolipids, glycosaminoglycans, and the biological systems in which they are found. Society for Glycobiology http://www.glycobiology.org/ 

Includes glycoconjugates (including glycoproteins, glycolipids, proteoglycans or free complex saccharides) or on any aspect of proteins that specifically interact with glycoconjugates (e.g. lectins, glycotransferases, glycosidases). Scope note of Glycobiology, Oxford Univ. Press http://glycob.oxfordjournals.org/ 

The biology of sugars and carbohydrates.  Google = about  38,700 Oct. 18, 2002

glycochip®: Google = about  30 Oct. 18, 2002, glycochip = about 69; as of Nov 27, 2006 about 398, about 8,590 Mar 17 2011

glycoconjugates: A type of compound consisting of carbohydrate units covalently linked with other types of chemical constituents. [IUPAC Compendium]

Various types of compound consisting of carbohydrates covalently linked with other types of chemical constituent are classified under the general name of glycoconjugates. The major groups of glycoconjugates are the glycoproteins, glycopeptides, peptidoglycans, glycolipids and lipopolysaccharides. [Nomenclature of glycoproteins, glycopeptides and peptidoglycans, IUPAC- IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature, 1985] http://www.chem.qmw.ac.uk/iupac/misc/glycp.html  

glycodendrimers: Multivalent neoglycoconjugates with well-defined structures have considerable potential as inhibitors of cell surface protein-carbohydrate interactions and as tools for studying such recognition processes in vitro. In this review, we outline strategies and synthetic methods for making one such class of neoglycoconjugates based on dendrimers--the so-called glycodendrimers.  Design and synthesis of glycodendrimers. Turnbull WB, Stoddart JF  J Biotechnol. 2002 May;90(3-4):231-55 .

glycoengineering: Delivery of protein therapeutics often requires frequent injections because of low activity or rapid clearance, thereby placing a burden on patients and caregivers. Using glycoengineering, we have increased and prolonged the activity of proteins, thus allowing reduced frequency of administration. Glycosylation analogs with new N-linked glycosylation consensus sequences introduced into the protein were screened for the presence of additional N-linked carbohydrates and retention of in vitro activity. Suitable consensus sequences were combined in one molecule, resulting in glycosylation analogs of rHuEPO, leptin, and Mpl ligand. All three molecules had substantially increased in vivo activity and prolonged duration of action. Because these proteins were of three different classes (rHuEPO is an N-linked glycoprotein, Mpl ligand an O-linked glycoprotein, and leptin contains no carbohydrate), glycoengineering may be generally applicable as a strategy for increasing the in vivo activity and duration of action of proteins. S. Elliott et. al., Enhancement of therapeutic protein in vivo activities through glycoengineering, Nature Biotechnology 21(4): 414- 421, April 2003

glycogenomics: What is clear from the genomic and structural data is that if we are to harness the latent power of glycogenomics, scientists must consider distant sequence relatives revealed by the sequence families or other sensitive detection methods. GJ Davies, B Henrissat, Structural enzymology of carbohydrate- active enzymes: implications for the post- genomic era. Biochem Soc Trans. 30(2): 291- 297, April 2002  Google = about 666 Nov 5, 2005

glycoimmunology: There are three main research themes being explored by the Glycoimmunology group: carbohydrate immunochemistry and vaccine design, carbohydrate-based inhibitor synthesis, and carbohydrate immunology. Specific projects focus on immune targeting of cancer cells via the bioengineering of their surface sialic acid; the control of cancer metastasis via the manipulation and targeting of tumor surface carbohydrate; physical and immunochemical mapping of protective sialylated epitopes; the synthesis of small molecule inhibitors of neurominidases and sialytransferases, and carbohydrate-based disease modifying approaches for Multiple Sclerosis. Immunobiology, National Research Council Canada 2010 http://www.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/eng/programs/ibs/immunobiology/glycoimmunology/glycoimmunology.html 

Our group "Glycoimmunology", sponsored by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) since February 2009, focuses on the impact of complex oligosaccharide structures on inflammatory processes in the body. In our immune system, there are different classes of carbohydrate-binding receptors (lectins) that recognize specific glycan structures on glycoproteins and glycolipids. C-type lectin receptors (CLRs) represent a large lectin receptor superfamily predominantly expressed on cells of the innate immunity (see figure). CLRs recognize conserved glycan structures on pathogens and play a crucial role in the initiation of a protective immune response during infections. Furthermore, they are important for the maintenance of tolerance to autoantigens. Glycoimmunology Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Potsdam, Germany 2011 http://www.mpikg.mpg.de/english/025-BiomolecularSystems/Arbeitsgruppen/Glycobiology/Glycoimmunology/index.html  

glycoinformatics: Development of methods for deciphering the glycocode. Mitsubishi Kagaku Institute of Life Sciences (MITILS) Japan, Annual Report, 2001 http://www.mitils.co.jp/ann_report/main_e01.html

Google = about 8  Oct. 18, 2002; about 23 Sept. 16, 2004

glycolipids: Any compound containing one or more monosaccharide residues bound by a glycosidic linkage to a hydrophobic moiety such as an acylglycerol (see GLYCERIDES), a sphingoid, a ceramide (CERAMIDES) (N-acylsphingoid) or a prenyl phosphate. [MeSH, 1966, from IUPAC's webpage]

glycoconjugate libraries: Combinatorial libraries & synthesis glossary

glycome:  Carbohydrate components of the cell. Analogous to the terms that characterize the genome and proteome, we define the glycome as the total carbohydrate complement.  Where glycomics is an analysis of their patterns of expression as modulated by the environment and the physiological state of the organism.  [Center for Structural Biology, Univ. of New Hampshire, US, 2000] http://glycome.unh.edu/  Google = about  138 Oct. 18, 2002; about 631 Sept. 16, 2004

Glycome Project: Hirabayashi J, Arata Y, Kasai K. Glycome project: Concept, strategy and preliminary application to Caenorhabditis elegans. Proteomics, 1, 295-303, 2001

glycomics: Apart from the obstacles presented by proteomics in the general case, glycobiology- focused proteomics, or glycomics, requires the development of novel approaches and tools directed at the special challenges of glycobiology. Strategies for separation, profiling, quantitation, and detailed characterization of carbohydrate structures are central challenges. Bioinformatics tools are needed for data handling and reduction, correlation of carbohydrate and protein information, recognizing shifts in glycoprotein microheterogeneity, and model building. Synthesis, three- dimensional structural analysis, and a variety of other carbohydrate- specific analytical tools may prove necessary to varying degrees, depending on the global strategies adopted and thematic focus of a center. NCRR National Center for Research Resources, NIH, Integrated Biomedical Technology Research Resources for Proteomics and Glycomics,  RELEASE DATE: July 22, 2002 PA NUMBER: PA-02-132 http://grants.nih.gov/grants/guide/pa-files/PA-02-132.html

The cascade of genetic information does not terminate with proteins but with glycans … diverse glycan structures are significantly related to various biological phenomena … glycans have potential to exhibit structural diversity, whose complexity is far greater than that of nucleic acids or proteins … Unless we adopt a global strategy involving the genome, proteome and glycome, we will never achieve an understanding of the glyco- code, which is probably based on a completely different system from those governing nucleic acids and proteins. J. Hirabayashi, J and K. Kasai “Glycomics, Coming of Age! Trends in Glycosciences and Glycobiology 12  (63): 1-5 Jan 2000]  http://www.gak.co.jp/TIGG/63PDF/GF.pdf 

Google = about  1,440  Oct. 18, 2002; about 7,780 Sept. 16, 2004  Related term: saccharomics

glycomimetic: Molecules which mimic the shape and essential features of an oligosaccharide. [Progen Industries Ltd. Glossary, 2001] http://www.progen.com.au/glossary.cfm

Google = about  73 Oct. 18, 2002, about 40,400 Aug 12, 2009

glycomimetics: A new class of small-molecule drugs, known as glycomimetics. These compounds mimic the bioactive function of carbohydrates and address the drawbacks of carbohydrate leads, namely their low activity and insufficient drug-like properties. From carbohydrate leads to glycomimetic drugs Beat Ernst¹ & John L. Magnani¹  Nature Reviews Drug Discovery 8, 661-677 (August 2009) | doi:10.1038/nrd2852

Google - about 40,700 Aug 12, 2009

glyconanotechnology:  Carbohydrate-carbohydrate interaction is a reliable and versatile mechanism for cell adhesion and recognition. Glycosphingolipid (GSL) clusters at the cell membrane are mainly involved in this interaction. To investigate carbohydrate-carbohydrate interaction an integrated strategy (Glyconanotechnology) was developed. This strategy includes polyvalent tools (gold glyconanoparticles) mimicking GSL clustering at the cell membrane as well as analytical techniques such as AFM, TEM, and SPR to evaluate the interactions. de la Fuente JM, Penades S, Understanding carbohydrate-carbohydrate interactions by means of glyconanotechnology  Glycoconjugate Journal 2004; 21(3- 4): 149-163

glyconomics: The study of sugar- modifications to proteins that affect structure and function. "Glyconomics" About biotech http://biotech.about.com/cs/glyconomics/

This term is used far less often than the related terms glycobiology and glycotechnology. See FAQ question #3 for quantifying methodology. Google = about  37 Oct. 18, 2002; about 37 Sept. 16, 2004

glycopeptides: Proteins which contain carbohydrate groups attached covalently to the polypeptide chain. The protein moiety is the predominant group with the carbohydrate making up only a small percentage of the total weight. MeSH, 1973

glycoprotein microarrays: Microarrays categories
glycoproteins: Proteins glossary

glycoproteomics: Any inflammatory process can be investigated with regard to 1. trigger/ inducing agent, 2. humoral response, 3. cellular response, 4. local tissue manifestations, 5. systemic manifestations. The OGP [Oxford GlycoProteome] research group applies GlycoProteomics technology to all these aspects of inflammatory diseases in different projects. Presently we are focussing thereby on the following diseases: Parasite infections, Allergies, Asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases (COPDs), Virus infections (Hepatitis), and Glycolipid storage diseases. .. Oxford Glyproteomics, Dept. of Biochemistry, Univ. of Oxford, Research Program, 1999] http://www2.bioch.ox.ac.uk/glycob/ogp/#Researchprogramparagraph

Google = about  93 Oct. 18, 2002

glycoscience: Genes encoding a large number of glycosyltransferases involved in the synthesis of the sugar chains have been cloned, and a systematic analysis of their functions has been promoted. Under these circumstances, studies in glycoscience are being focused on examining the significance of various types of sugar chain structures and elucidating the mechanisms of biological regulation for carbohydrate synthesis In Japan, many studies on complex carbohydrates have long been accomplished by members of the research groups supported by the Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture (MESSC). ["From the Genome Research Era to the Glycome: An interview with Professor Naoyuki Taniguch" Glycoforum, Japan 2000] http://www.glycoforum.gr.jp/science/now/now3E.html    Google = about  8,010 Oct. 18, 2002  Related terms carbohydrates, glycobiology, glycotechnology, oligosaccharide

glycosylation: The addition of oligosaccharides to particular residues on a protein. This modification can be both co- translational and post- translational, occurring in the endoplasmatic reticulum and golgi. Three different forms of glycosylation can be distinguished: N-linked oligosaccharides, O-linked oligosaccharides and glycosyl- phosphatidylinositol (GPI-) anchors. Glossary, Epicyte, 2002  http://www.epicyte.com/  Click on glossary  Broader term: Proteins Glossary post- translational modifications

glycosylation end products, advanced: Products derived from the nonenzymatic reaction of glucose and proteins in vivo that exhibit a yellow- brown pigmentation and an ability to participate in protein- protein cross- linking. These substances are involved in biological processes relating to protein turnover and it is believed that their excessive accumulation contributes to the chronic complications of diabetes mellitus. MeSH, 1993

glycotechnology:   Glycoconjugates existing on cell surfaces play important roles in development, immunity, and as ligands of various molecules. Our research objective is to investigate the chemical information contained in carbohydrates at the molecular level. Mitsubishi Kagaku Institute of Life Sciences (MITILS) Japan  http://www008.upp.so-net.ne.jp/kokanee/front.html  
Google = about  1,070 Oct. 18, 2002; 2,030 Sept. 4, 2003  Related terms: carbohydrates, glycobiology, glycoscience, oligosaccharide;  Narrower term: glycotechnology- analytical

glycotechnology- analytical Consortium for Functional Glycomics http://glycomics.scripps.edu/bulletin/

lectins: Proteins that share the common characteristic of binding to carbohydrates. Some ANTIBODIES and carbohydrate-metabolizing proteins (ENZYMES) also bind to carbohydrates, however they are not considered lectins. PLANT LECTINS are carbohydrate- binding proteins that have been primarily identified by their hemagglutinating activity (HEMAGGLUTININS). However, a variety of lectins occur in animal species where they serve diverse array of functions through specific carbohydrate recognition. MeSH 2003

neoglycopeptides:  Recent advances in peptide synthesis can allow the preparation of authentic neoglycopeptides by using glycosylated amino acids as building blocks, thus avoiding the need to express the protein in a cell system. Applications of neoglycopeptides can be found in the targeting and translocation of oligonucleotides. The sugar moiety would be responsible for targeting specific cells, while the peptide would carry out the translocation of the oligonucleotides. Biosynthesis Neoglycoproteins and Neoglycopeptides http://www.biosyn.com/tew.aspx?qid=167 

oligosaccharide chips: See Microarrays under glycochips
oligosaccharide microarrays: Microarrays categories

oligosaccharides:  Carbohydrates consisting of between two and ten MONOSACCHARIDES connected by either an alpha- or beta- glycosidic link. They are found throughout nature in both the free and bound form. MeSH   Includes disaccharides, trisaccharides; broader term is polysaccharides

pharmacoglycomics: Still at a very early stage of development, the investigation of the effects of genetic variation on individuals' physiology and response to biological glycosylation.  
Google = about 2 Oct. 18, 2002

polysaccharides:  Compounds consisting of a large number of monosaccharides linked glycosidically. This term is commonly used only for those containing more than ten monosaccharide residues.  Also called glycans. .IUPAC Compendium 

Many non-specialists are confused about the distinction between carbohydrates and polysaccharides, since most common carbohydrates that one comes across in everyday foods are actually polysaccharides. The situation was confused for many years until the 1960s. About 3% of all known organic compounds are carbohydrates, and you won't go far wrong if you take the view that all sugars, things like sugars, and things made from sugars (including polysaccharides) are all carbohydrate.  Saccharomics, UK http://www.saccharomics.com/

protein- carbohydrate interactions: Proteomics glossary

proteoglycan:  A subclass of protein in which the carbohydrate units are polysaccharides that contain amino sugars. The protein is glycosylated by one or more (up to about 100) glycosaminoglycans [linear polymers of up to about 2000 repeating disaccharide units. [IUPAC Compendium] 

Glycoproteins which have a very high polysaccharide content. MeSH, 1977  Related terms: glycoscience, polysaccharides.

saccharides:   Monosaccharides and di-, oligo- and polysaccharides, which are made up of n monosaccharide units linked to each other by a glycosidic bond. Considered by some to be synonymous with carbohydrates. [IUPAC Compendium]

sugar amino acid hybrids SAAHs: Pharmaceutical biology glossary

Bibliography
GlycoWord, GlycoForum, Japan, 2001, 100+ terms and subjects. http://www.glycoforum.gr.jp/science/word/wordE.html#indexW  Up- to- the - minute guide to modern glycoscience.
Nomenclature of glycoproteins, glycopeptides and peptidoglycans, IUPAC- IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature, 1985 http://www.chem.qmw.ac.uk/iupac/misc/glycp.html

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IUPAC definitions are reprinted with the permission of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.